University of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222Investigate Related Factors with Work- Family Role Conflict with Emphasis on Organizational Factors Among Employed WomenInvestigate Related Factors with Work- Family Role Conflict with Emphasis on Organizational Factors Among Employed Women1182173410.22108/jas.2017.21734FASeyedAlirezaAfshaniUniversity of Yazd, IranLidaHatefiradUniversity of Yazd, IranJournal Article20151106<strong>Introduction: </strong>Human society is composed of women and men that are in social interactions and both dependent on each other and have special role and function. Certainly women as half of the population had direct impact on the development of society. Therefore, development strategies should consider woman participation in political, social and economic affairs and specially the situation of employed women. Work and family are two main areas in everybody's life that simultaneous involved with dual roles has some consequences for organization, individual and family. Researchers claimed that due to their responsibilities in family, women experience more conflict between job and family roles than men; hence this research has examined organizational factors related to work-family role conflict among employed women in Yazd included work time, work experience, type of job, work support, sense of work role overload, job satisfaction.
<strong>Material & Methods:</strong> This survey is practical in terms of content, cross-sectional, and extensive. This study was conducted in 2014 and the population was all employed woman in Yazd. The Sampling method which applied in this survey study is cluster sampling that selected 323 employed woman by this method. In this way the offices divided in three main clusters (group1: twenty and less employed women, group 2: twenty to fifty employed women and group 3: more than fifty female). Then In each cluster, a number of offices were randomly selected. Owing to collecting the data, participants filled out a questionnaire. Work-family role conflict as the main variable in this study was measured by Carlson et al scale (2000) with 18 items. The validity of the data collection tool was ensured through a content validity and its reliability through a Cronbach's alpha. The Cronbach's alpha measured for the main variable (work-family conflict) was 0.91, and it measured for independent variables as follows: 0.76 for work support, 0.71 for sense of work role overload and 0.80 for job satisfaction. Data were analyzed by the statistical software’s, namely SPSS and Amos.
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions:</strong> The results of descriptive statistics indicate 26 percent were age category 18-29, 47 percent in age category 30-41, 25 percent in age category 42-53 and 2 percent in 54-66. The average age of respondents was 36 years old and Minimum age was 20 and maximum age was 63 years old. In terms of marital status 19 percent of Respondents were single and 80 percent were married. In terms of occupation, 66 percent had governmental jobs and 34 percent were employed in private businesses. Work- family role conflict has measured in two dimension (included work -family conflict and family- work conflict) and three types (based on time, strain and behavior). Generally the average of work- family conflict (26.74) is more than family- work conflict (23.43). It indicates employed women in Yazd in Job duties have more problems and experience more role conflict. Findings of the study showed that among independent variables, work support and job satisfaction had significant and negative relationship with work-family conflict. In other words with increase work support and job satisfaction, role conflict becomes less. These results have Conformity with role set theory of Merton and Greenhause and Beutel model. In contrast, there is a significant and positive relationship between work time and sense of work role overload with work- family conflict that this result confirms viewpoint of Higgins and Duxbury. Also, there is a significant difference between the work-family role conflict of public and private businesses. Work experience, had no significant relationship with the work- family conflict. Thus, organizational factors have effective role to reduce the pressure and stress of employed women. Path analysis showed job satisfaction has the most effect on work-family conflict. Afterwards work time, sense of work role overload and work support has the most effect.<strong>Introduction: </strong>Human society is composed of women and men that are in social interactions and both dependent on each other and have special role and function. Certainly women as half of the population had direct impact on the development of society. Therefore, development strategies should consider woman participation in political, social and economic affairs and specially the situation of employed women. Work and family are two main areas in everybody's life that simultaneous involved with dual roles has some consequences for organization, individual and family. Researchers claimed that due to their responsibilities in family, women experience more conflict between job and family roles than men; hence this research has examined organizational factors related to work-family role conflict among employed women in Yazd included work time, work experience, type of job, work support, sense of work role overload, job satisfaction.
<strong>Material & Methods:</strong> This survey is practical in terms of content, cross-sectional, and extensive. This study was conducted in 2014 and the population was all employed woman in Yazd. The Sampling method which applied in this survey study is cluster sampling that selected 323 employed woman by this method. In this way the offices divided in three main clusters (group1: twenty and less employed women, group 2: twenty to fifty employed women and group 3: more than fifty female). Then In each cluster, a number of offices were randomly selected. Owing to collecting the data, participants filled out a questionnaire. Work-family role conflict as the main variable in this study was measured by Carlson et al scale (2000) with 18 items. The validity of the data collection tool was ensured through a content validity and its reliability through a Cronbach's alpha. The Cronbach's alpha measured for the main variable (work-family conflict) was 0.91, and it measured for independent variables as follows: 0.76 for work support, 0.71 for sense of work role overload and 0.80 for job satisfaction. Data were analyzed by the statistical software’s, namely SPSS and Amos.
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions:</strong> The results of descriptive statistics indicate 26 percent were age category 18-29, 47 percent in age category 30-41, 25 percent in age category 42-53 and 2 percent in 54-66. The average age of respondents was 36 years old and Minimum age was 20 and maximum age was 63 years old. In terms of marital status 19 percent of Respondents were single and 80 percent were married. In terms of occupation, 66 percent had governmental jobs and 34 percent were employed in private businesses. Work- family role conflict has measured in two dimension (included work -family conflict and family- work conflict) and three types (based on time, strain and behavior). Generally the average of work- family conflict (26.74) is more than family- work conflict (23.43). It indicates employed women in Yazd in Job duties have more problems and experience more role conflict. Findings of the study showed that among independent variables, work support and job satisfaction had significant and negative relationship with work-family conflict. In other words with increase work support and job satisfaction, role conflict becomes less. These results have Conformity with role set theory of Merton and Greenhause and Beutel model. In contrast, there is a significant and positive relationship between work time and sense of work role overload with work- family conflict that this result confirms viewpoint of Higgins and Duxbury. Also, there is a significant difference between the work-family role conflict of public and private businesses. Work experience, had no significant relationship with the work- family conflict. Thus, organizational factors have effective role to reduce the pressure and stress of employed women. Path analysis showed job satisfaction has the most effect on work-family conflict. Afterwards work time, sense of work role overload and work support has the most effect.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21734_812d05521478f23dba6f152dcf1a4b4e.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222Representation of Commodification of Emotions in Social Relationships (Research Case: The Movie Heavy Makeup)Representation of Commodification of Emotions in Social Relationships (Research Case: The Movie Heavy Makeup)19302173610.22108/jas.2017.21736FAEhsanAqababaeeUniversity of Isfahan, IranMasoudKianpourUniversity of Isfahan, IranJournal Article20160417<strong>Introduction</strong>
In recent decades social changes and developments in service sector have created an environment in which human emotions are turned into objects. This is known, in the literature of the sociology of emotions, as commodification of emotions. In Iran and after the revolution, significant changes have taken place in the structure of the economy in the sense that the service sector has been expanding over the other two sections, namely, agriculture and industry. From 1997 to 2005, Iranian service sector has expanded 3.6 % on average. This trend slowed down a little bit in the early years of the 2000s but picked up its speed pretty soon. On average, between the years of 2012 and 2014, 48% of workers were in the service sector. In addition, demographic changes of the 1980s, value changes after the war in the 1990s, expansion of higher education in the 2000s, and economic crisis of nuclear sanctions in the 2010s have influenced job opportunities, income expectations, and job performance. We believe that a "hunger for making money" has intensified the process of commodification of emotions in social relationships. This phenomenon can be studied either via a positivistic approach, asking people's opinion about money and how important it is in their social life or via an interpretative approach, in which the study of popular culture's products, especially movies, can be an indicative of the above process. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to interpret representation of emotions commodification in social relationships, based on a movie named Heavy Makeup.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>commodification of emotions, narrative analysis, heavy makeup, social relations
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
In order to interpret how emotions are commodified in social relations, the movie Hard Makeup is chosen using maximum-discrepancy sampling method. In order to analyze the data, narrative analysis is used as a qualitative method belonging to the interpretive paradigm. Ontologically, narrative analysis is idealistic and epistemologically it is subjective. Moreover, it studies narrative genres and systematic narrating, and is a popular research method in cinema studies. In the present article, narrative analysis is applied at two levels of story and discourse to analyze the context of the movie. At the level of the story, representation of acts and personalities will be considered and at the level of discourse, the orientation of the movie towards these two levels will be explored.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusions</strong>
This article aimed at analyzing commodification of emotions in social relations using a movie as an example. In doing so, the theory of Arlie Hochschild, an American sociologist and feminist, in the area of sociology of emotions was utilized to see how this process takes place. The results show that the discourse of Heavy Makeup represents a service-based economy in which actors are expected to rely on their emotions as a source of capital, utilizing it in economic transactions and social relationships in order to make profit. In other words, this discourse employs a storyline which shows all characters, who work in the service sector, perform "emotional labor" so they can bring their emotions in line with the requirements of their jobs and achieve their goals. In this way, feeling rules of such jobs require that job holders sell their emotions, not because of institutionalized and regulatory nature of work procedures, but because of over individualization of work process. This selling is in fact a sort of gambling over emotions in which obtaining money is the ultimate purpose. From the view of the discourse of the movie, none of the characters eventually reach their goals in the commodification process and fail miserably. <strong>Introduction</strong>
In recent decades social changes and developments in service sector have created an environment in which human emotions are turned into objects. This is known, in the literature of the sociology of emotions, as commodification of emotions. In Iran and after the revolution, significant changes have taken place in the structure of the economy in the sense that the service sector has been expanding over the other two sections, namely, agriculture and industry. From 1997 to 2005, Iranian service sector has expanded 3.6 % on average. This trend slowed down a little bit in the early years of the 2000s but picked up its speed pretty soon. On average, between the years of 2012 and 2014, 48% of workers were in the service sector. In addition, demographic changes of the 1980s, value changes after the war in the 1990s, expansion of higher education in the 2000s, and economic crisis of nuclear sanctions in the 2010s have influenced job opportunities, income expectations, and job performance. We believe that a "hunger for making money" has intensified the process of commodification of emotions in social relationships. This phenomenon can be studied either via a positivistic approach, asking people's opinion about money and how important it is in their social life or via an interpretative approach, in which the study of popular culture's products, especially movies, can be an indicative of the above process. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to interpret representation of emotions commodification in social relationships, based on a movie named Heavy Makeup.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>commodification of emotions, narrative analysis, heavy makeup, social relations
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
In order to interpret how emotions are commodified in social relations, the movie Hard Makeup is chosen using maximum-discrepancy sampling method. In order to analyze the data, narrative analysis is used as a qualitative method belonging to the interpretive paradigm. Ontologically, narrative analysis is idealistic and epistemologically it is subjective. Moreover, it studies narrative genres and systematic narrating, and is a popular research method in cinema studies. In the present article, narrative analysis is applied at two levels of story and discourse to analyze the context of the movie. At the level of the story, representation of acts and personalities will be considered and at the level of discourse, the orientation of the movie towards these two levels will be explored.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusions</strong>
This article aimed at analyzing commodification of emotions in social relations using a movie as an example. In doing so, the theory of Arlie Hochschild, an American sociologist and feminist, in the area of sociology of emotions was utilized to see how this process takes place. The results show that the discourse of Heavy Makeup represents a service-based economy in which actors are expected to rely on their emotions as a source of capital, utilizing it in economic transactions and social relationships in order to make profit. In other words, this discourse employs a storyline which shows all characters, who work in the service sector, perform "emotional labor" so they can bring their emotions in line with the requirements of their jobs and achieve their goals. In this way, feeling rules of such jobs require that job holders sell their emotions, not because of institutionalized and regulatory nature of work procedures, but because of over individualization of work process. This selling is in fact a sort of gambling over emotions in which obtaining money is the ultimate purpose. From the view of the discourse of the movie, none of the characters eventually reach their goals in the commodification process and fail miserably. https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21736_49a97a022fac0999ca864734f7742cef.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222The Investigation of the Impact of the Social Capital Aspects on the Performance of Agricultural and Industrial Cooperatives in Boyer-Ahmad CountyThe Investigation of the Impact of the Social Capital Aspects on the Performance of Agricultural and Industrial Cooperatives in Boyer-Ahmad County31522170410.22108/jas.2017.21704FAAsgharMirfardiUniversity of Shiraz, Iran0000-0002-1219-4485SiroosAhmadiUniversity of Yasouj, IranJaffarRostamiUniversity of Yasouj, IranJournal Article20120912<strong>Introduction </strong>
Making over tenets and assessments of cooperation and its functions,the mutual relationship between development of cooperativesand various forms of assetsis understood. To develop and fortify a cooperative, different finances are needed such associal assets, economical assets, and cultural assets. Consideringthe scales of social assets, if cooperation is to be assumedan organization, social assets arethe most significant parts of the organization. Other assets are in lower ranks. Social assets embodysocial networks’ simplification of cooperation and harmony to realize the organization goals. It also leads to a better performance in cooperative organization, creating solidarity and harmony among the organization members. Socialscholars define social assets as an engine whichdirectsthe society forward on its path to promotion. These scholars believe that social assets and economical assets are the same, but there is a slight difference; social assets putmore stresson the fund of mutual groups. They believe thatsocieties canpromotevital progresses to control the board of these assets and expend it (Jahaugiri and Shokrizadeh, 2010). Thus, social assets are of great importance for the development of and having positive effects on society and boosting the performance of cooperative organizations. The facilities and potentials of agricultural industrial sectors and their potentialityin our country haveattracted the attentions.
The interaction between industry and agriculture is required to reach a consonant progress. Ignoring one of these factors, the result will be insufficiencyor lack any progress in the second one. The government shouldconsider fair and equal finance budgeting forboth sectors. Accordingly, the goal of reaching 25%of cooperative share in thenational economy will be achieved.As a result, the domestic production will be improved. Acquiring this goal and other predicted goals in the twenty-year pre-planned procedure along with improving the agricultural and industrial cooperatives need assessment and analyzing their performances and also planningand setting the goals. The functionalassessment of agriculture and industrial cooperativeorganizationsshouldnot to be ignored. It has been tried to assess the performance and legal capacities of cooperative section of Boyer-Ahmad region. Atthe same time, the capabilities and shortcomings have been identified.
<strong>Material and methods</strong>
The padding method was applied for data collection;it wasdealt with some antecedent questionnairesfully evaluated by scholars.Based on the statistics,there were 210 people who wereall members of industrial or agricultural cooperative organizations in Boyer-Ahmad region. Morgan-chart (Hassanzadeh,2007) was used, and only136 people were selected.
Using categorical sampling method,industrial and agricultural cooperativesamples were collected. The presentstudyaimed toevaluatethe effects of social assets on the function of agricultural and industrial cooperatives. The notions and methods of assessing the samples and methods are introduced. Putnamdefined social assets as a glimpse of social life (networks, norms, and trust)in which the participants act together to reach certain and common goals(Feeld,2007). In the present study, social values of people bring about better cooperationof the staff, reducethe expenses of interactions and exchanges, and even simplify the interoperation to achieve the goals or expandthe revenues. To analyze the social assets, some criteria such asocial awareness, social solidarity, social reliance, and social participation were extracted from Putnamtheory and then evaluated using Likerts’F opinion questionnaire (none, very little, normal, much, very much, totally). The functionability assessment is defined as measuring and analyzing the performance of organizations in a certain period of time. Sincethe whole process and its measures are fully explained to organizations (Tabarasa, 1999), in this study, the functionability assessment isa process through which the procedure of development and analyzable criteria are considered, a process that allows the systematic assessment of development with regard to the pre-planned goals. The performance of agricultural and industrial cooperative organizations isperceivedthrough their functioning sincethey have unbreakable bonds with strategic goals of the organization, contest for the customer, orientation, and cash incomes. To analyze industrial and agricultural organizations’ performance, functional and non-functional criteria were extracted from Kaplan and Norton balanced prominence card, and then were calculated.Using compound criteria,the financial aspectsof industrial and agricultural cooperative organizations were analyzed. The non-financial aspect was evaluatedthrough the scales of customer orientation and member orientation. Financial functioning means some financial criteriaincludingthe amount of the capital, the scale of income, the condition of expenses,the qualification of loans, and profits’income. Non-financial performance means members’satisfaction of cooperative organization with regard to obviating their needs, market orientation, and boosting eagerness to purchase the productions of that organization (Torabi et al., 2010). To analyze the financial function with regard to its importance and effective variants on cooperative organizations’performance, the first step is to consider previous researches such as Torabi Dalooiet al.(2010). According to Keor(2006), there are no measures on financial variables of industrial and agricultural cooperative organizations.
It the second stage, the numerical taxonomy method was used. The specified categories and financial measures and the average of every single measurewere calculated for industrial and agricultural cooperative organizations, and then atthe next step, every organization,having a higher financial rank ofthe average of measures,gotone,and those having a lower rank . In the end, the grand total of the numbers was obtained. The financial mixing criterion was calculated for every cooperative organization under the banner of financial functioning.
Finally, the average scores were obtained from non-financial indexes after being recordedand made intoone level; they were added and considered as the performance score. Thecomponent validity was determinedthrough confirmatory factorial analysis.And to determine the reliability of internal cooperation, Cronbach’s Alpha was used. The results of factorial analysis showed that member orientation and customer orientation factors could predicate. Based on the results, 51%of non-financial performances’ variation and four factors including social participation, social awareness, social solidarity, and social trust may predicate 54 %of the social capital.The extent of KMO test for social capital equals0.806, and each of these two elements is significantat 0.001, suggestingthat correlation matrix between items of each elementis not identity matrix. It demonstratesthat there is a high correlation between items internal to each factor. There is no correlation between items of one factor andother items. Considering that the alpha valuesof the variables are higher than 0.70, it can be said that this study has a good reliability, showing a suitable internal solidarity.
<strong>Discussion </strong>
The findings of the current survey emphasized the impact of the social participation, social integration, and social awareness onthe performance of agricultural and industrial cooperatives. These variables account for 37.7 %of the cooperatives’ performance changes. The results also revealed that social trust, age, sex, marital status, ethnicity, education level, activity record, and membership recordof the cooperative members at cooperatives do not affect cooperatives’ performance.<strong>Introduction </strong>
Making over tenets and assessments of cooperation and its functions,the mutual relationship between development of cooperativesand various forms of assetsis understood. To develop and fortify a cooperative, different finances are needed such associal assets, economical assets, and cultural assets. Consideringthe scales of social assets, if cooperation is to be assumedan organization, social assets arethe most significant parts of the organization. Other assets are in lower ranks. Social assets embodysocial networks’ simplification of cooperation and harmony to realize the organization goals. It also leads to a better performance in cooperative organization, creating solidarity and harmony among the organization members. Socialscholars define social assets as an engine whichdirectsthe society forward on its path to promotion. These scholars believe that social assets and economical assets are the same, but there is a slight difference; social assets putmore stresson the fund of mutual groups. They believe thatsocieties canpromotevital progresses to control the board of these assets and expend it (Jahaugiri and Shokrizadeh, 2010). Thus, social assets are of great importance for the development of and having positive effects on society and boosting the performance of cooperative organizations. The facilities and potentials of agricultural industrial sectors and their potentialityin our country haveattracted the attentions.
The interaction between industry and agriculture is required to reach a consonant progress. Ignoring one of these factors, the result will be insufficiencyor lack any progress in the second one. The government shouldconsider fair and equal finance budgeting forboth sectors. Accordingly, the goal of reaching 25%of cooperative share in thenational economy will be achieved.As a result, the domestic production will be improved. Acquiring this goal and other predicted goals in the twenty-year pre-planned procedure along with improving the agricultural and industrial cooperatives need assessment and analyzing their performances and also planningand setting the goals. The functionalassessment of agriculture and industrial cooperativeorganizationsshouldnot to be ignored. It has been tried to assess the performance and legal capacities of cooperative section of Boyer-Ahmad region. Atthe same time, the capabilities and shortcomings have been identified.
<strong>Material and methods</strong>
The padding method was applied for data collection;it wasdealt with some antecedent questionnairesfully evaluated by scholars.Based on the statistics,there were 210 people who wereall members of industrial or agricultural cooperative organizations in Boyer-Ahmad region. Morgan-chart (Hassanzadeh,2007) was used, and only136 people were selected.
Using categorical sampling method,industrial and agricultural cooperativesamples were collected. The presentstudyaimed toevaluatethe effects of social assets on the function of agricultural and industrial cooperatives. The notions and methods of assessing the samples and methods are introduced. Putnamdefined social assets as a glimpse of social life (networks, norms, and trust)in which the participants act together to reach certain and common goals(Feeld,2007). In the present study, social values of people bring about better cooperationof the staff, reducethe expenses of interactions and exchanges, and even simplify the interoperation to achieve the goals or expandthe revenues. To analyze the social assets, some criteria such asocial awareness, social solidarity, social reliance, and social participation were extracted from Putnamtheory and then evaluated using Likerts’F opinion questionnaire (none, very little, normal, much, very much, totally). The functionability assessment is defined as measuring and analyzing the performance of organizations in a certain period of time. Sincethe whole process and its measures are fully explained to organizations (Tabarasa, 1999), in this study, the functionability assessment isa process through which the procedure of development and analyzable criteria are considered, a process that allows the systematic assessment of development with regard to the pre-planned goals. The performance of agricultural and industrial cooperative organizations isperceivedthrough their functioning sincethey have unbreakable bonds with strategic goals of the organization, contest for the customer, orientation, and cash incomes. To analyze industrial and agricultural organizations’ performance, functional and non-functional criteria were extracted from Kaplan and Norton balanced prominence card, and then were calculated.Using compound criteria,the financial aspectsof industrial and agricultural cooperative organizations were analyzed. The non-financial aspect was evaluatedthrough the scales of customer orientation and member orientation. Financial functioning means some financial criteriaincludingthe amount of the capital, the scale of income, the condition of expenses,the qualification of loans, and profits’income. Non-financial performance means members’satisfaction of cooperative organization with regard to obviating their needs, market orientation, and boosting eagerness to purchase the productions of that organization (Torabi et al., 2010). To analyze the financial function with regard to its importance and effective variants on cooperative organizations’performance, the first step is to consider previous researches such as Torabi Dalooiet al.(2010). According to Keor(2006), there are no measures on financial variables of industrial and agricultural cooperative organizations.
It the second stage, the numerical taxonomy method was used. The specified categories and financial measures and the average of every single measurewere calculated for industrial and agricultural cooperative organizations, and then atthe next step, every organization,having a higher financial rank ofthe average of measures,gotone,and those having a lower rank . In the end, the grand total of the numbers was obtained. The financial mixing criterion was calculated for every cooperative organization under the banner of financial functioning.
Finally, the average scores were obtained from non-financial indexes after being recordedand made intoone level; they were added and considered as the performance score. Thecomponent validity was determinedthrough confirmatory factorial analysis.And to determine the reliability of internal cooperation, Cronbach’s Alpha was used. The results of factorial analysis showed that member orientation and customer orientation factors could predicate. Based on the results, 51%of non-financial performances’ variation and four factors including social participation, social awareness, social solidarity, and social trust may predicate 54 %of the social capital.The extent of KMO test for social capital equals0.806, and each of these two elements is significantat 0.001, suggestingthat correlation matrix between items of each elementis not identity matrix. It demonstratesthat there is a high correlation between items internal to each factor. There is no correlation between items of one factor andother items. Considering that the alpha valuesof the variables are higher than 0.70, it can be said that this study has a good reliability, showing a suitable internal solidarity.
<strong>Discussion </strong>
The findings of the current survey emphasized the impact of the social participation, social integration, and social awareness onthe performance of agricultural and industrial cooperatives. These variables account for 37.7 %of the cooperatives’ performance changes. The results also revealed that social trust, age, sex, marital status, ethnicity, education level, activity record, and membership recordof the cooperative members at cooperatives do not affect cooperatives’ performance.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21704_0ec3d0061e50ae929dcfbc32056c2a05.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222Analysis of Academic Loafing as Social Loafing Among Students of Mazandaran UniversityAnalysis of Academic Loafing as Social Loafing Among Students of Mazandaran University53702173510.22108/jas.2017.21735FAAli AsgharFirouzjaeianUniversity of Mazandaran, IranParvizSharifiUniversity of Mazandaran, IranJournal Article20151224<strong>Introduction</strong>
Social loafing can cause many problems and negative consequences for the individual and society in the short term and the long term. Iranian society is a society in which social loafing is a serious problem. Today, we can see loafing in various sections in Iran. Loafing used to be meant breeding, sloth and negligence and dereliction. However, nowadays even university students present apathy in their behaviors. The aim of this study is to investigate the factors responsible for student’s social loafing (in these case Mazandaran university students). Students play a key role in development programs in every society. Therefore, their apathy to training can be a serious problem in our university system. In this research, loafing is defined as a situation in which a person procrastinates his/her pursuit of individual and collective goals. Here, researchers survey academic loafing at two levels: individual and collective. Academic loafing is effected by disorganization at the systemic level.
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
Method is survey and data collecting tool is questionnaire. The population of this research includes all of Mazandaran University students and the sample size was estimated 390 students by Cochran formula. In this research, the theory of Coleman rational choice was selected as the theoretical framework. After collecting data, hypotheses were analyzed at descriptive and inferential levels by Amos and SPSS software. The dependent variable is defined as academic loafing and independent variables include: disorganization within the university system and out of the university, lack of control in university, weak planning in university, systemic training loafing, culture of loafing in society, academic alienation, lack of interest and motivation to learn, autonomy, low cost of loafing in the community, lack of facilities at the university and lack of job prospects.
<strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusions</strong>
The results show that academic loafing has a meaningful relationship with variables such as disorganization within the university and out of the university, lack of control in university, weak planning in university, systemic training loafing, culture of loafing in society, academic alienation, lack of interest and motivation to learn, autonomy, and low cost of loafing in the community. But there is not a meaningful relationship between social loafing and lack of facilities at university and lack of job prospects. The result of structural modeling test shows that the above variables could explain 40% of the variance of academic loafing (at individual and group levels). According to the result, loafing is not a personal action but collective action.<strong>Introduction</strong>
Social loafing can cause many problems and negative consequences for the individual and society in the short term and the long term. Iranian society is a society in which social loafing is a serious problem. Today, we can see loafing in various sections in Iran. Loafing used to be meant breeding, sloth and negligence and dereliction. However, nowadays even university students present apathy in their behaviors. The aim of this study is to investigate the factors responsible for student’s social loafing (in these case Mazandaran university students). Students play a key role in development programs in every society. Therefore, their apathy to training can be a serious problem in our university system. In this research, loafing is defined as a situation in which a person procrastinates his/her pursuit of individual and collective goals. Here, researchers survey academic loafing at two levels: individual and collective. Academic loafing is effected by disorganization at the systemic level.
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
Method is survey and data collecting tool is questionnaire. The population of this research includes all of Mazandaran University students and the sample size was estimated 390 students by Cochran formula. In this research, the theory of Coleman rational choice was selected as the theoretical framework. After collecting data, hypotheses were analyzed at descriptive and inferential levels by Amos and SPSS software. The dependent variable is defined as academic loafing and independent variables include: disorganization within the university system and out of the university, lack of control in university, weak planning in university, systemic training loafing, culture of loafing in society, academic alienation, lack of interest and motivation to learn, autonomy, low cost of loafing in the community, lack of facilities at the university and lack of job prospects.
<strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusions</strong>
The results show that academic loafing has a meaningful relationship with variables such as disorganization within the university and out of the university, lack of control in university, weak planning in university, systemic training loafing, culture of loafing in society, academic alienation, lack of interest and motivation to learn, autonomy, and low cost of loafing in the community. But there is not a meaningful relationship between social loafing and lack of facilities at university and lack of job prospects. The result of structural modeling test shows that the above variables could explain 40% of the variance of academic loafing (at individual and group levels). According to the result, loafing is not a personal action but collective action.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21735_3fc4e2ded8fd9c4324047e4954a6c791.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222The Study of Relationship Between Cultural Reproduction and Social Class with an Emphasis on Fatalism (The Heads of Households in Isfahan)The Study of Relationship Between Cultural Reproduction and Social Class with an Emphasis on Fatalism (The Heads of Households in Isfahan)71942170810.22108/jas.2017.21708FAAhmadMoazzeniUniversity of Payam Noor, IranAliBeheshti DoustUniversity of Payam Noor, IranJournal Article20150805Introduction:
In general, the recognition and measurement of the social class concept has been considered both in the classical and later sociologist's views. The social class, in its general sense, refers to the diverse and unequal access of people to social advanteges. The current research approach refers to the concept of class, refers to a social milieu -that is, “a space of difference, in which the classes are potentially existent, in the form of a point, not as a data, but as what is supposed to be done” (Bourdieu, 1389, 43). The concept of a social class has a close link with cultural reproduction: First of all, in view of from the perspect of this research, social class measurement is associated with three types of economic, social and cultural capital. The main purpouse of the research is to emphasize cultural capital and its major significance, and its distinction, between social classes and its reproduction.
In addition to the concept of cultural capital, fatalism, as a cultural feature, can be reproduced and sustained in a distinct way between certain social classes. Reproduction is also considered in two general ways: First and foremost, the classic and primary concept of reproduction, especially cultural reproduction, is characterized by the high social class of high cultural capital, and the lower classes are expected to have a smaller share in it. The second is the concept of reproduction among the lower social classes, which reproduces the fatalistic attitude as a cultural element and is expected to have a more fatalistic attitude among them. One of the necessities of this research is to provide a basis for emphasizing the component of cultural capital as the main component of social class measurement and the mechanism for its reproduction based on the concept of fatalism. The paper also seeks to answer other questions: Is there a relationship between social class and fatalism, and which of the concepts of cultural reproduction or cultural mobility confirm this relationship?
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Material and Methods:</strong>
Survey is one of the major methods among the study of large populations. In this research, the theoretical part was studied by using library and documentary studies and the main part of the research has been done by using the survey method. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the research, which was developed using theoretical studies and foundations. The final sample size was obtained by multistage cluster sampling. After selecting the clusters of urban areas of Isfahan, according to the size of the household and the share allocated to them, the questionnaires were distributed among heads of household.
<strong> </strong>
<strong> </strong>
<strong> </strong>
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion of results & Conclusions :</strong>
The study of the class, the system of stratification and its mechanisms, its survival and its evolution have long been considered by social scientists and many studies have been carried out by leading thinkers in this field for a long time. In classical sociology, the concept of class began with Marx, and then moved by Max Weber toward a more accurate and applied measure. And finally, the mechanisms for reproduction, and its recognition and measurement as one of the most practical explanations of contemporary, were examined by Bourdieu. In this study, the role of cultural capital as one of the main components of social class measurement in explaining the concept of reproduction has also been very influential. As emphasized by Bourdieu, the component of cultural capital is one of the main components of the social class. The research results show that cultural capital among low classes is low. Therefore, cultural capital is also the most distinctive element in measuring social classes and can also justify the mechanism of reproduction among classes. The concept of fatalism and its reproduction mechanisms have been studied in this space, using the concept of cultural capital and its relation with fatalism among social classes. Accordingly, the social status of individuals in the social hierarchy can be largely explained by the mental orientation of those class members. Therefore, the belief of fatalism can also be as a cultural element in different classes and be reproduced as a class character among the lower classes. On the other hand, cultural capital is also largely in the hands of high social classes and reproduced in a similar mechanism.
As a general conclusion, the distribution of cultural capital among the studied social classes depends largely on the base and family background of individuals. In other words, the existence of the mechanism of reproduction of cultural capital among the upper classes and the reproduction of fatalism among the lower social classes shows that Bourdieu's cultural reproduction model is prioritized by Dimajio's cultural model of culture. It can only be said that the middle class is partially enjoyed with the relative distribution of various types of cultural and economic capital. In other words, the pattern of cultural mobility is relatively existed intermediate among the middle class, but the dominant pattern is the cultural reproduction pattern one in the two extremes of the social class (lower and upper classes).Introduction:
In general, the recognition and measurement of the social class concept has been considered both in the classical and later sociologist's views. The social class, in its general sense, refers to the diverse and unequal access of people to social advanteges. The current research approach refers to the concept of class, refers to a social milieu -that is, “a space of difference, in which the classes are potentially existent, in the form of a point, not as a data, but as what is supposed to be done” (Bourdieu, 1389, 43). The concept of a social class has a close link with cultural reproduction: First of all, in view of from the perspect of this research, social class measurement is associated with three types of economic, social and cultural capital. The main purpouse of the research is to emphasize cultural capital and its major significance, and its distinction, between social classes and its reproduction.
In addition to the concept of cultural capital, fatalism, as a cultural feature, can be reproduced and sustained in a distinct way between certain social classes. Reproduction is also considered in two general ways: First and foremost, the classic and primary concept of reproduction, especially cultural reproduction, is characterized by the high social class of high cultural capital, and the lower classes are expected to have a smaller share in it. The second is the concept of reproduction among the lower social classes, which reproduces the fatalistic attitude as a cultural element and is expected to have a more fatalistic attitude among them. One of the necessities of this research is to provide a basis for emphasizing the component of cultural capital as the main component of social class measurement and the mechanism for its reproduction based on the concept of fatalism. The paper also seeks to answer other questions: Is there a relationship between social class and fatalism, and which of the concepts of cultural reproduction or cultural mobility confirm this relationship?
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Material and Methods:</strong>
Survey is one of the major methods among the study of large populations. In this research, the theoretical part was studied by using library and documentary studies and the main part of the research has been done by using the survey method. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the research, which was developed using theoretical studies and foundations. The final sample size was obtained by multistage cluster sampling. After selecting the clusters of urban areas of Isfahan, according to the size of the household and the share allocated to them, the questionnaires were distributed among heads of household.
<strong> </strong>
<strong> </strong>
<strong> </strong>
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion of results & Conclusions :</strong>
The study of the class, the system of stratification and its mechanisms, its survival and its evolution have long been considered by social scientists and many studies have been carried out by leading thinkers in this field for a long time. In classical sociology, the concept of class began with Marx, and then moved by Max Weber toward a more accurate and applied measure. And finally, the mechanisms for reproduction, and its recognition and measurement as one of the most practical explanations of contemporary, were examined by Bourdieu. In this study, the role of cultural capital as one of the main components of social class measurement in explaining the concept of reproduction has also been very influential. As emphasized by Bourdieu, the component of cultural capital is one of the main components of the social class. The research results show that cultural capital among low classes is low. Therefore, cultural capital is also the most distinctive element in measuring social classes and can also justify the mechanism of reproduction among classes. The concept of fatalism and its reproduction mechanisms have been studied in this space, using the concept of cultural capital and its relation with fatalism among social classes. Accordingly, the social status of individuals in the social hierarchy can be largely explained by the mental orientation of those class members. Therefore, the belief of fatalism can also be as a cultural element in different classes and be reproduced as a class character among the lower classes. On the other hand, cultural capital is also largely in the hands of high social classes and reproduced in a similar mechanism.
As a general conclusion, the distribution of cultural capital among the studied social classes depends largely on the base and family background of individuals. In other words, the existence of the mechanism of reproduction of cultural capital among the upper classes and the reproduction of fatalism among the lower social classes shows that Bourdieu's cultural reproduction model is prioritized by Dimajio's cultural model of culture. It can only be said that the middle class is partially enjoyed with the relative distribution of various types of cultural and economic capital. In other words, the pattern of cultural mobility is relatively existed intermediate among the middle class, but the dominant pattern is the cultural reproduction pattern one in the two extremes of the social class (lower and upper classes).https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21708_7bd243f6f187c44479bcadaa9eddc1ca.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222The Relation between Students’ Social Life Skills and Components of their Political Education (the Case of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman)The Relation between Students’ Social Life Skills and Components of their Political Education (the Case of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman)951122171010.22108/jas.2017.21710FAAsgharSoltaniUniversity of Shahid Bahonar Kerman, IranHosseinMmoeinabadiShahid bahonar University of KermanJournal Article20150411<strong>Introduction</strong>
Social life skills include social, psychological, communicative and interpersonal abilities to connect that help people to make informed decisions and communicate effectively. World Health Organization describes these skills as abilities to make decision, problem solving, creative thinking, critical thinking, self-awareness, and interpersonal relations (2001). One of the most important contexts of university students’ life that could be affected by social life skills is the students’ political participation that is related to their quality of political education. On the other hand, the conceptualization of political education reveals that political education is a broad concept that focuses on participation and action, so it is inherently a non-academic process (Lee, 1997). It implies development of knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are needed for political participation.
Political knowledge is one of the key variables in researches on political education (Mondak, 1999). Wolak & McDevitt (2011) argue that political knowledge is a useful resource in shaping the responsibility of citizens. In general, those who have better grades in political knowledge, participate better in political life and in decision making processes (Hooghe & Dassonneville, 2011). Peoples’ political attitudes are affected by their philosophical ideas and also psychological elements. Political attitude would include motivation to political corporation, sense of competitiveness, valuing different ideas and a sense of respect for pluralism. On the other hand, political skills include a set of abilities and social competencies that allow people to guide themselves in the almost stormy seas of politics (McAllister et al., 2014). These abilities include competency in political decision making and the ability to evaluate the country’s political system. Finally, political behavior is basically a behavior of social communication and is different with rational behavior (Chang, 2014). In fact, political behavior is a group of interactional processes that influence ones’ political behavior (Ellen, 2013). According to above themes, the main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between students’ social life skills and components of their political education. In this regard, the research hypotheses are:
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political knowledge.
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political attitude.
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political skill.
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political behavior.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
The research design is correlational. Research population is consisted of undergraduate and graduate students of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. A total of 375 students were selected to be included in the sample. Research instruments are researcher made questionnaires, titled “Social Life Skills Questionnaire” and “Questionnaire of Measurement of Students’ Political Education Components”. The reliability of instruments was tested by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) and revealed 0.93 for the first instrument and 0.86 for the second. The collected data was analyzed through SPSS software version 22. All participant’s responses were subjected to correlation analysis and multivariate regression.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions </strong>
The results show that all social life skills that were investigated in this study have a positive, significant and medium relationship with students’ political education components. Also, the skills such as critical thinking, world citizenship and self-awareness are the most important predictors for political education components and the sex is not a significant predictor for student political education. Based on the results, it is recommended that the components of world citizenship should be considered in the university programs, especially in the curricula related to the social and humanities courses. Also, due to the observed strong relationship between political knowledge with decision making skills and critical thinking, it is recommended that university officials design programs that would promote challenging decision making skills through workshops or courses of the academic programs.<strong>Introduction</strong>
Social life skills include social, psychological, communicative and interpersonal abilities to connect that help people to make informed decisions and communicate effectively. World Health Organization describes these skills as abilities to make decision, problem solving, creative thinking, critical thinking, self-awareness, and interpersonal relations (2001). One of the most important contexts of university students’ life that could be affected by social life skills is the students’ political participation that is related to their quality of political education. On the other hand, the conceptualization of political education reveals that political education is a broad concept that focuses on participation and action, so it is inherently a non-academic process (Lee, 1997). It implies development of knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are needed for political participation.
Political knowledge is one of the key variables in researches on political education (Mondak, 1999). Wolak & McDevitt (2011) argue that political knowledge is a useful resource in shaping the responsibility of citizens. In general, those who have better grades in political knowledge, participate better in political life and in decision making processes (Hooghe & Dassonneville, 2011). Peoples’ political attitudes are affected by their philosophical ideas and also psychological elements. Political attitude would include motivation to political corporation, sense of competitiveness, valuing different ideas and a sense of respect for pluralism. On the other hand, political skills include a set of abilities and social competencies that allow people to guide themselves in the almost stormy seas of politics (McAllister et al., 2014). These abilities include competency in political decision making and the ability to evaluate the country’s political system. Finally, political behavior is basically a behavior of social communication and is different with rational behavior (Chang, 2014). In fact, political behavior is a group of interactional processes that influence ones’ political behavior (Ellen, 2013). According to above themes, the main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between students’ social life skills and components of their political education. In this regard, the research hypotheses are:
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political knowledge.
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political attitude.
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political skill.
There is significant relation between students’ social life skills and their political behavior.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
The research design is correlational. Research population is consisted of undergraduate and graduate students of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. A total of 375 students were selected to be included in the sample. Research instruments are researcher made questionnaires, titled “Social Life Skills Questionnaire” and “Questionnaire of Measurement of Students’ Political Education Components”. The reliability of instruments was tested by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) and revealed 0.93 for the first instrument and 0.86 for the second. The collected data was analyzed through SPSS software version 22. All participant’s responses were subjected to correlation analysis and multivariate regression.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions </strong>
The results show that all social life skills that were investigated in this study have a positive, significant and medium relationship with students’ political education components. Also, the skills such as critical thinking, world citizenship and self-awareness are the most important predictors for political education components and the sex is not a significant predictor for student political education. Based on the results, it is recommended that the components of world citizenship should be considered in the university programs, especially in the curricula related to the social and humanities courses. Also, due to the observed strong relationship between political knowledge with decision making skills and critical thinking, it is recommended that university officials design programs that would promote challenging decision making skills through workshops or courses of the academic programs.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21710_2c95cb3e34cf5b0a93379343feb5f31e.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222The Role of Perceived Organizational Justice in Job ProcrastinationThe Role of Perceived Organizational Justice in Job Procrastination1131222170610.22108/jas.2017.21706FAAbbasKhakpourMalayer University, IranMitraGholipourUniversity of Bu-Ali Sina Hamadan, IranJournal Article20160414<strong>Introduction </strong>
This study aims to describe, predict and explain job procrastination through the variable of organizational justice. Numerous factors affect job procrastination, some of which are personal. They are mostly interesting for psychologists. Several studies, including Walker (2004), Steed et al. (2010) and Corkin and colleagues (2011) have examined the role of individual characteristics and personality traits on procrastination. However, there are organizational and environmental factors such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job motivation, job characteristics, and payroll system which affect job procrastination as well as individual factors. Scholars of organization, management and organizational sociology often focus on these factors. Perceived organizational justice is one of the organizational factors that can be investigated within the perspective of organizational sociology, and organizational behavior. Using an organizational perspective, the present study tries to investigate the role of perceived organizational justice on job procrastination.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Materials & Methods </strong>
The research method is descriptive in this study (non-experimental), and research design is multi-variable correlation, in which using regression models to examine correlational relationships between variables is done. The statistical population includes all employees of Payam Noor University of Hamedan, of whom 80 employees were randomly selected. Data collection tools consist of two questionnaires. In order to measure job procrastination, researcher-made questionnaire (29 items) and to assess the perceived organizational justice Niehoff and Moorman questionnaire (20 items) were used, respectively.
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions</strong>
The results of the study show that there is a negative relationship between variables of organizational justice and job procrastination. Also, the relationship between procedural justice and interactional justice with job procrastination is significant. Regression analysis (stepwise method) indicates that interactional justice is a valid predictor of job procrastination and more than 15% of the variance in job procrastination (R Square = 0.126) is explained by it. When it comes to the relationship between field of study and job procrastination and perceived organizational justice, the results indicate that there is no significant difference among employees in job procrastination and perceived organizational justice. Also, there are no significant relationships between the staffs’ age and work experience with variables of organizational justice and job procrastination. However, a significant difference was perceived between gender and the variables of organizational justice and job procrastination.
Overall, we believe little research is done in this area. Some studies - indirectly - have tried to link job procrastination and organizational justice. Most studies, however, have concentrated on the relationship between organizational justice and occupational burnout, or organizational citizenship and job satisfaction.
Studies such as Abekah-Nkrumah & Ayimbillah Atinga (2013), Amirkhani & Poorezzat (2009), Blakely etal (2005), Greenberg (2004), Guangling (2011), Kumcagiz etal (2014), Karriker & Williams (2009), Poursoltani &Mirzaei (2011) & Nazemi et al (2013), have concluded that perceived organizational justice is associated with citizenship behavior, job stress, organizational identity, job satisfaction, burnout, organizational citizenship, cognitive arousal and empowering employees. Each of these variables can be directly or indirectly linked to job procrastination.
We believe that when it comes to job procrastination in an organization, it is essential that instead of linking procrastination to personal factors, researchers pay a closer attention to organizational variables such as perceived justice.<strong>Introduction </strong>
This study aims to describe, predict and explain job procrastination through the variable of organizational justice. Numerous factors affect job procrastination, some of which are personal. They are mostly interesting for psychologists. Several studies, including Walker (2004), Steed et al. (2010) and Corkin and colleagues (2011) have examined the role of individual characteristics and personality traits on procrastination. However, there are organizational and environmental factors such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job motivation, job characteristics, and payroll system which affect job procrastination as well as individual factors. Scholars of organization, management and organizational sociology often focus on these factors. Perceived organizational justice is one of the organizational factors that can be investigated within the perspective of organizational sociology, and organizational behavior. Using an organizational perspective, the present study tries to investigate the role of perceived organizational justice on job procrastination.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Materials & Methods </strong>
The research method is descriptive in this study (non-experimental), and research design is multi-variable correlation, in which using regression models to examine correlational relationships between variables is done. The statistical population includes all employees of Payam Noor University of Hamedan, of whom 80 employees were randomly selected. Data collection tools consist of two questionnaires. In order to measure job procrastination, researcher-made questionnaire (29 items) and to assess the perceived organizational justice Niehoff and Moorman questionnaire (20 items) were used, respectively.
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions</strong>
The results of the study show that there is a negative relationship between variables of organizational justice and job procrastination. Also, the relationship between procedural justice and interactional justice with job procrastination is significant. Regression analysis (stepwise method) indicates that interactional justice is a valid predictor of job procrastination and more than 15% of the variance in job procrastination (R Square = 0.126) is explained by it. When it comes to the relationship between field of study and job procrastination and perceived organizational justice, the results indicate that there is no significant difference among employees in job procrastination and perceived organizational justice. Also, there are no significant relationships between the staffs’ age and work experience with variables of organizational justice and job procrastination. However, a significant difference was perceived between gender and the variables of organizational justice and job procrastination.
Overall, we believe little research is done in this area. Some studies - indirectly - have tried to link job procrastination and organizational justice. Most studies, however, have concentrated on the relationship between organizational justice and occupational burnout, or organizational citizenship and job satisfaction.
Studies such as Abekah-Nkrumah & Ayimbillah Atinga (2013), Amirkhani & Poorezzat (2009), Blakely etal (2005), Greenberg (2004), Guangling (2011), Kumcagiz etal (2014), Karriker & Williams (2009), Poursoltani &Mirzaei (2011) & Nazemi et al (2013), have concluded that perceived organizational justice is associated with citizenship behavior, job stress, organizational identity, job satisfaction, burnout, organizational citizenship, cognitive arousal and empowering employees. Each of these variables can be directly or indirectly linked to job procrastination.
We believe that when it comes to job procrastination in an organization, it is essential that instead of linking procrastination to personal factors, researchers pay a closer attention to organizational variables such as perceived justice.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21706_036bfeea6419907ff08e62ac94e82296.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222Trust in Social Interactions; An Experimental StudyTrust in Social Interactions; An Experimental Study1231382170510.22108/jas.2017.21705FAAhmadrezaAsgharpour-MasoulehUniversity of Ferdowsi Mashhad, IranSamanehAmiriUniversity of Ferdowsi Mashhad, IranGHolamrezaSeddigh OuraeeUniversity of Ferdowsi, IranJournal Article20150120<strong>Introduction</strong>
This paper presents the results of laboratory experiments on trust and cooperation in social interactions. It aims at contributing to one of the basic questions of theoretical sociology: social order. In order to maintain social order, a collectivist orientation is essential for any society (Javadi Yeganeh and Hashemi, 2006). The formation of collective actions through individual actions and interpersonal interactions, and why and how cooperation between actors have different answers in sociological paradigms (Asgharpour, 2011). Therefore, explaining social order has been the main concern of most social scientists. Albeit economists and sociologists have their specific approaches to this issue. In the economic view, actors are rational creatures who try to maximize their individual profits. They investigate available resources and choices, and check the potential consequences, then adopt the decision that has the most benefit for them. In the sociological approach, agents are affected by social norms and values, and give the first priority to collective interests. Hence they make decisions in harmony with social norms and help to gain social benefits. The best way to explain actions with regard to both individual preferences and social forces is the advertent observation of actors’ decision making in various social situations. The purpose of this paper is to study the relationship between trust and cooperation in social interactions using laboratory experiments. This matter is important because trust is vital in all interactions including business transactions, and many scholars have emphasized the importance of this issue.
<strong>Materials & Methods</strong>
This experiment took place over one days in the computer laboratory of the literature Faculty of Ferdowsi University, using the experimental software z-Tree. The participants were 28 students recruited through public announcement in various faculties. All interactions took place through the computer network and the subjects were unable to identify their counterparts. The subjects played 30 periods in all and were informed in advance of the duration of the game. The game took nearly one hour (including instructions) and the average payment was 42000 Rials, which was paid immediately after the experiment. Each game was conducted with two subjects, and in each period subjects are randomly assigned to the role of <em>A </em>and <em>B</em>; (ii) both player <em>A </em>(the investor) and player <em>B </em>(the trustee) received an initial endowment of 10 experimental currency units (ECU), having an exchange rate of 1 ECU = 1.5 Euro cents; (iii) player <em>A </em>decided his/her investment and the invested amount was tripled and sent to player <em>B </em>in addition to his/her own endowment; (iv) <em>B </em>chose the amount to return to <em>A</em>; (v) the sums earned by both players in the current period were shown to both subjects.
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions</strong>
In this baseline game, the subgame perfect equilibrium, assuming that actors are rational and self-interested, is for B to return nothing and consequently for A to keep all his/her endowment. Nevertheless, experimental evidence shows that investors are willing to send on average about 40-50% of their endowment, while trustees return slightly more than the amount sent (Berg et al., 1995; see also Camerer, 2003). The pure economic perspective to expect that actors are economic and simply tend to look for more profit, should lead to the fact that the parties do not trust their interactions. However, the results of this study showed that actors significantly trusted their interactions and investors were willing to send on average about 23% of their endowment. Also, even B players (trustees) who must pay a part of their profit to trustors, did not act in pure economic terms. Also, there was not a significant difference between men and women in the amount of investment.<strong>Introduction</strong>
This paper presents the results of laboratory experiments on trust and cooperation in social interactions. It aims at contributing to one of the basic questions of theoretical sociology: social order. In order to maintain social order, a collectivist orientation is essential for any society (Javadi Yeganeh and Hashemi, 2006). The formation of collective actions through individual actions and interpersonal interactions, and why and how cooperation between actors have different answers in sociological paradigms (Asgharpour, 2011). Therefore, explaining social order has been the main concern of most social scientists. Albeit economists and sociologists have their specific approaches to this issue. In the economic view, actors are rational creatures who try to maximize their individual profits. They investigate available resources and choices, and check the potential consequences, then adopt the decision that has the most benefit for them. In the sociological approach, agents are affected by social norms and values, and give the first priority to collective interests. Hence they make decisions in harmony with social norms and help to gain social benefits. The best way to explain actions with regard to both individual preferences and social forces is the advertent observation of actors’ decision making in various social situations. The purpose of this paper is to study the relationship between trust and cooperation in social interactions using laboratory experiments. This matter is important because trust is vital in all interactions including business transactions, and many scholars have emphasized the importance of this issue.
<strong>Materials & Methods</strong>
This experiment took place over one days in the computer laboratory of the literature Faculty of Ferdowsi University, using the experimental software z-Tree. The participants were 28 students recruited through public announcement in various faculties. All interactions took place through the computer network and the subjects were unable to identify their counterparts. The subjects played 30 periods in all and were informed in advance of the duration of the game. The game took nearly one hour (including instructions) and the average payment was 42000 Rials, which was paid immediately after the experiment. Each game was conducted with two subjects, and in each period subjects are randomly assigned to the role of <em>A </em>and <em>B</em>; (ii) both player <em>A </em>(the investor) and player <em>B </em>(the trustee) received an initial endowment of 10 experimental currency units (ECU), having an exchange rate of 1 ECU = 1.5 Euro cents; (iii) player <em>A </em>decided his/her investment and the invested amount was tripled and sent to player <em>B </em>in addition to his/her own endowment; (iv) <em>B </em>chose the amount to return to <em>A</em>; (v) the sums earned by both players in the current period were shown to both subjects.
<strong>Discussion of Results & Conclusions</strong>
In this baseline game, the subgame perfect equilibrium, assuming that actors are rational and self-interested, is for B to return nothing and consequently for A to keep all his/her endowment. Nevertheless, experimental evidence shows that investors are willing to send on average about 40-50% of their endowment, while trustees return slightly more than the amount sent (Berg et al., 1995; see also Camerer, 2003). The pure economic perspective to expect that actors are economic and simply tend to look for more profit, should lead to the fact that the parties do not trust their interactions. However, the results of this study showed that actors significantly trusted their interactions and investors were willing to send on average about 23% of their endowment. Also, even B players (trustees) who must pay a part of their profit to trustors, did not act in pure economic terms. Also, there was not a significant difference between men and women in the amount of investment.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21705_5dd25e44b5361181a469460c9a3af0b7.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222Semantic Implications of Leisure among Isfahani Citizens: A Qualitative ResearchSemantic Implications of Leisure among Isfahani Citizens: A Qualitative Research1391542226310.22108/jas.2017.75230.0FAYaserRastegarUniversity of Hormozgan, IranMohammad-TaghiImanUniversity of Shiraz, IranMaryamSoroushUniversity ofSaeadEbrahimiUniversity of Isfahan, IranJournal Article20160518<strong>Introduction</strong>
As a new concept is emerging from separation of work and home, technological advances, and the social division of labor, leisure time has provided people with the opportunity of turning away from the limits and constraints of modern social order (Kivisto, 2001:80). In this regard, working and non-working hours have increasingly been divided further into the modern life. This has provided the modern societies with more leisure so that it has become a controversial issue as how to spend leisure time. The way people spend their leisure time has something to say about their mindset, preferences, tastes, and lifestyles. The meaning of leisure in human subjects can lead us to the implications of leisure patterns. Research on leisure patterns has mainly adopted a quantitative, outward approach to determine factors affecting leisure consumption patterns. In fact, little attention has been paid to what the human subjects think of leisure. A qualitative study may examine how citizens perceive and interpret leisure and its related issues. Therefore, the present study aims to identify and describe some of the most important semantic implications that Isfahani citizens attribute to leisure.
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
The study adopted an interpretive paradigm and a methodology based on grounded theory. The present study was conducted in Isfahan city. Purposive sampling method incorporating maximum required diversity was used to select the participants from among Isfahani citizens. Due to the breadth of the field, it is necessary to use various methods of accessing the subjects. Theoretical and snowball samplings are two valid and well-known methods of accessing the sample. Three-step coding is the essential analytic technique used in grounded theory.
<strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusion</strong>
<strong>1. communicative/technological leisure</strong>
This type of leisure is pursued by those who consider communication and interaction as their primary activity while in leisure time. Such people tend to run their means of communication to interact with other people as soon as they find free time. Indeed, the meaning of leisure is strongly linked to the presence and companion of others.
<strong>2. family-oriented leisure</strong>
Family is another key concept related to leisure and its perception so that one may make frequent references to their family when talking about free time. Being with one’s family, enjoying one’s time with family, travelling with one’s family, and other family activities are highly important. Close emotional interaction and safe communication with family members reinforce such meaning making of leisure in people.
<strong>3. Domestic leisure</strong>
Domestic leisure is another variation which makes sense to women. This refers to either married employed women or homemakers who talk about their leisure time at home. Domestic leisure is related to leisure time spent on house chores or home management.
<strong>4. Individualist leisure</strong>
Individualization may mean both distancing from and lack of interaction with public spaces and extending the private territory and importance of leisure in private, lonely situations. This is more prevalent in young-age groups while the middle-aged and members of senior groups give less emphasis to individualized and private meanings of leisure.
<strong>Core Category: reductionist leisure/anomic leisure</strong>
One of the key themes extracted from data analysis refers to the reductionist meaning of leisure that participants attribute to leisure activities. Thus, what the participants and citizens in different age groups, genders and even educated class perceive of leisure looks predominantly similar to free time and daily pastime. Indeed, leisure is reduced from its original meaning as a set of planned activities for the purposes of self-actualization, growth, and transcendence to routine, unplanned activities. Another reductionist tendency discovered through the analysis of the data is to attribute leisure only to recreational and leisurely activities which require no effort while along with its pleasurable and blissful dimensions, leisure requires seriousness, assiduity, and practice. One who fills his leisure time with a training class may have a more serious meaning of leisure in his mind. Overall, two reductionist approaches to meaning making of leisure include: leisure is only a recreation which needs no especial effort or activity. However, anomic leisure denotes the actors’ confusion and ambiguity in selecting leisure tastes and patterns. Unemployment and inevitable free time as well as unavailability of the facilities and infrastructure needed to spend leisure time lead them to a situation where they have to make leisure choices which they do not consider appropriate. In fact, leisure is forced upon the person. Here, leisure is not defined as opposed to work so that it is not willingly gained following serious efforts and exhausting activities; rather, it is an accessible leisure opportunity that is readily available and lacks enough utility. Under such circumstances, one feels confused and looks for different alternatives aimlessly to kill his time. <strong>Introduction</strong>
As a new concept is emerging from separation of work and home, technological advances, and the social division of labor, leisure time has provided people with the opportunity of turning away from the limits and constraints of modern social order (Kivisto, 2001:80). In this regard, working and non-working hours have increasingly been divided further into the modern life. This has provided the modern societies with more leisure so that it has become a controversial issue as how to spend leisure time. The way people spend their leisure time has something to say about their mindset, preferences, tastes, and lifestyles. The meaning of leisure in human subjects can lead us to the implications of leisure patterns. Research on leisure patterns has mainly adopted a quantitative, outward approach to determine factors affecting leisure consumption patterns. In fact, little attention has been paid to what the human subjects think of leisure. A qualitative study may examine how citizens perceive and interpret leisure and its related issues. Therefore, the present study aims to identify and describe some of the most important semantic implications that Isfahani citizens attribute to leisure.
<strong>Materials and Methods</strong>
The study adopted an interpretive paradigm and a methodology based on grounded theory. The present study was conducted in Isfahan city. Purposive sampling method incorporating maximum required diversity was used to select the participants from among Isfahani citizens. Due to the breadth of the field, it is necessary to use various methods of accessing the subjects. Theoretical and snowball samplings are two valid and well-known methods of accessing the sample. Three-step coding is the essential analytic technique used in grounded theory.
<strong>Discussion of Results and Conclusion</strong>
<strong>1. communicative/technological leisure</strong>
This type of leisure is pursued by those who consider communication and interaction as their primary activity while in leisure time. Such people tend to run their means of communication to interact with other people as soon as they find free time. Indeed, the meaning of leisure is strongly linked to the presence and companion of others.
<strong>2. family-oriented leisure</strong>
Family is another key concept related to leisure and its perception so that one may make frequent references to their family when talking about free time. Being with one’s family, enjoying one’s time with family, travelling with one’s family, and other family activities are highly important. Close emotional interaction and safe communication with family members reinforce such meaning making of leisure in people.
<strong>3. Domestic leisure</strong>
Domestic leisure is another variation which makes sense to women. This refers to either married employed women or homemakers who talk about their leisure time at home. Domestic leisure is related to leisure time spent on house chores or home management.
<strong>4. Individualist leisure</strong>
Individualization may mean both distancing from and lack of interaction with public spaces and extending the private territory and importance of leisure in private, lonely situations. This is more prevalent in young-age groups while the middle-aged and members of senior groups give less emphasis to individualized and private meanings of leisure.
<strong>Core Category: reductionist leisure/anomic leisure</strong>
One of the key themes extracted from data analysis refers to the reductionist meaning of leisure that participants attribute to leisure activities. Thus, what the participants and citizens in different age groups, genders and even educated class perceive of leisure looks predominantly similar to free time and daily pastime. Indeed, leisure is reduced from its original meaning as a set of planned activities for the purposes of self-actualization, growth, and transcendence to routine, unplanned activities. Another reductionist tendency discovered through the analysis of the data is to attribute leisure only to recreational and leisurely activities which require no effort while along with its pleasurable and blissful dimensions, leisure requires seriousness, assiduity, and practice. One who fills his leisure time with a training class may have a more serious meaning of leisure in his mind. Overall, two reductionist approaches to meaning making of leisure include: leisure is only a recreation which needs no especial effort or activity. However, anomic leisure denotes the actors’ confusion and ambiguity in selecting leisure tastes and patterns. Unemployment and inevitable free time as well as unavailability of the facilities and infrastructure needed to spend leisure time lead them to a situation where they have to make leisure choices which they do not consider appropriate. In fact, leisure is forced upon the person. Here, leisure is not defined as opposed to work so that it is not willingly gained following serious efforts and exhausting activities; rather, it is an accessible leisure opportunity that is readily available and lacks enough utility. Under such circumstances, one feels confused and looks for different alternatives aimlessly to kill his time. https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_22263_1e76794b7061b62c91dbb6bfc7b6508a.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222Spatial Analysis of Social and Cultural Factors as Driving Forces and Obstacles in Regional Spatial Planning and Development in Khorasane-Shomali ProvinceSpatial Analysis of Social and Cultural Factors as Driving Forces and Obstacles in Regional Spatial Planning and Development in Khorasane-Shomali Province1551722173710.22108/jas.2017.21737FAKhederFarajiradاستادیار جغرافیا و برنامهریزی شهری، پژوهشگاه علوم انتظامی و مطالعات اجتماعی تهران، ایرانGholamrezaKazemianUniversity of Allameh Tabtbaei Tehran, IranJournal Article20160219<strong>Introduction</strong>
Development paradigms and approaches have changed at the macro level since 1970s from hard to soft and the traditional development models have been marginalized. At the same time, the local and regional development theories are also changing continuously. By these changes and transformation in theories, there has been a lot of attention to the role of Social and cultural factors in regional spatial planning and development in two recent decades and concepts such as social capital are considered attractive in this arena.
Formulating and explaining of the role of social and cultural factors in local and regional development has begun from 1990s, and there has been a lot of studies in recent years which demonstrated that social and cultural factors can act as driving forces and obstacles in local and regional development.
The role of social and cultural factors in local and regional development is so important that regional competitiveness models, consider them essential for regional development. Investigating and analysis the role of social and cultural factors, therefore, can be considered as a basic step in development planning for a region.
According to the above discussion, this article is trying to answer the question: how the situation is in terms of social and cultural factors as driving forces or obstacles in regional development in Khorasane-Shomali Province? It is necessary to note that although there have been a lot of studies that have theoretically and empirically paid special attention to the role of social and cultural factors in the development, the role of social and cultural factors in regional planning and development is still unknown.
<strong>Materials & Methods</strong>
In this article, we have used a survey and qualitative method to explain the subject and answer the main research question. The empirical data was provided by the plan of spatial planning of Khorasane-Shomali Province. Data gathering tool was questionnaire and the article has used the formal data delivered and reported by local organizations. It should be noted that the Khorasane-Shomali Province is located in the north east of Iran and is one of the new formally shaped provinces that was formed in 2004.
Cultural components such as culture of working, willingness to learning and progress, and conflict and opposition between groups (ethnic, social classes, and generic) were examined. The social components such as literacy rate, social problems, identity and sense of locality, and social capital were also investigated.
<strong>3- Discussion of Results & Conclusions</strong>
The results demonstrate that although it is not possible to draw an exact spatial area according to the social and cultural factors in Khorasane-Shomali Province, the counties of the province show different conditions according to the social and cultural factors. So we can draw some approximate boundaries separating social and cultural conditions in that province. The results also demonstrate that there are some social and cultural factors such as working as a value, the important of working, and social capital that act as driving forces in the process of spatial planning and development of Khorasane-Shomali. On the other hand, it can be argued that factors such as declining social status of working, various conflicts and opponents, social problems and unemployment are acting as obstacles in the process of spatial planning and development of Khorasane-Shomali Province. Therefore, according to the results, there are many differences between counties of Khorasane-Shomali Province. These differences stem from historical roots and various cultural, social, geographical, and physical conditions of the counties. For example, the counties located in the south of province such as Esfarayein, Jajarm and Gemeh show more different social and cultural conditions as they are separated from northern parts of province by a mountains chain. The ethnic diversity is also an important factor in the province.<strong>Introduction</strong>
Development paradigms and approaches have changed at the macro level since 1970s from hard to soft and the traditional development models have been marginalized. At the same time, the local and regional development theories are also changing continuously. By these changes and transformation in theories, there has been a lot of attention to the role of Social and cultural factors in regional spatial planning and development in two recent decades and concepts such as social capital are considered attractive in this arena.
Formulating and explaining of the role of social and cultural factors in local and regional development has begun from 1990s, and there has been a lot of studies in recent years which demonstrated that social and cultural factors can act as driving forces and obstacles in local and regional development.
The role of social and cultural factors in local and regional development is so important that regional competitiveness models, consider them essential for regional development. Investigating and analysis the role of social and cultural factors, therefore, can be considered as a basic step in development planning for a region.
According to the above discussion, this article is trying to answer the question: how the situation is in terms of social and cultural factors as driving forces or obstacles in regional development in Khorasane-Shomali Province? It is necessary to note that although there have been a lot of studies that have theoretically and empirically paid special attention to the role of social and cultural factors in the development, the role of social and cultural factors in regional planning and development is still unknown.
<strong>Materials & Methods</strong>
In this article, we have used a survey and qualitative method to explain the subject and answer the main research question. The empirical data was provided by the plan of spatial planning of Khorasane-Shomali Province. Data gathering tool was questionnaire and the article has used the formal data delivered and reported by local organizations. It should be noted that the Khorasane-Shomali Province is located in the north east of Iran and is one of the new formally shaped provinces that was formed in 2004.
Cultural components such as culture of working, willingness to learning and progress, and conflict and opposition between groups (ethnic, social classes, and generic) were examined. The social components such as literacy rate, social problems, identity and sense of locality, and social capital were also investigated.
<strong>3- Discussion of Results & Conclusions</strong>
The results demonstrate that although it is not possible to draw an exact spatial area according to the social and cultural factors in Khorasane-Shomali Province, the counties of the province show different conditions according to the social and cultural factors. So we can draw some approximate boundaries separating social and cultural conditions in that province. The results also demonstrate that there are some social and cultural factors such as working as a value, the important of working, and social capital that act as driving forces in the process of spatial planning and development of Khorasane-Shomali. On the other hand, it can be argued that factors such as declining social status of working, various conflicts and opponents, social problems and unemployment are acting as obstacles in the process of spatial planning and development of Khorasane-Shomali Province. Therefore, according to the results, there are many differences between counties of Khorasane-Shomali Province. These differences stem from historical roots and various cultural, social, geographical, and physical conditions of the counties. For example, the counties located in the south of province such as Esfarayein, Jajarm and Gemeh show more different social and cultural conditions as they are separated from northern parts of province by a mountains chain. The ethnic diversity is also an important factor in the province.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_21737_2b11f1db9ba1d4756dba2337995877dd.pdfUniversity of IsfahanJournal of Applied Sociology2008-574528420171222A Qualitative Study of Women's Attitudes and Perceptions towards their BodyA Qualitative Study of Women's Attitudes and Perceptions towards their Body1731942226210.22108/jas.2017.75214.0FAAfsanehGhasemiUniversity of Alzahra, IranJournal Article20160403<strong>Introduction</strong>: The body is not a mere biological and psychosocial entity. It is a phenomenon that is socially constructed. Therefore, with today's consumer society, media and reflections of identity, people begin to reflect on their own body as something which can be constructed. The aim of this study is to understand women's perception of their body and body image.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Material & Method</strong>: the method of this study is qualitative and based on grounded theory. Data collection technique was semi-structured interviews with 18 young women in Tehran that had gone through any form of cosmetic surgery. In this study, theoretical sampling was used based on theoretical saturation, namely, the sampling process was stopped when new data didn’t emerge. A coding system was used for data analysis based on three steps: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The result of the encoding process is 167 concepts, 16 main categories and 25 sub-categories.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Results</strong> <strong>&</strong> <strong>Conclusion</strong>: Women perceive their bodies as a capital, a mask, something on which they can develop an independent identity and by which they can experience enjoyment and relaxation. Although body as capital is the main perception, some women understand their body as mask. Women build their own identity and present it in their own ways to others. The enjoyment and relaxation of the body include perceptions that offset the negative views of women about their bodies. This study shows that perceptions of women are affected by values and norms of the society in which they live, including masculine norms that prevail in society. Other influencing norms include those related to gender socialization, low self-esteem, low prestige and mass media. However, masculine norms are the most important factors that influence the body image of women. Women's lower prestige than men shape their perception of body image negatively.
Women face employment barriers more often than men. Assessments of women’s quality of work is also lower in comparison with men. For example, women are evaluated lower than men in similar positions. As a result, women use their body to gain good jobs and status. Media is also one of the main factors affecting women's body image. As various studies have shown, the importance of the media in this regard is undeniable. It works in two ways: (1) direct influence on women, and (2) by shaping men's priorities. Women internalize norms of the society in the process of gender socialization based. They constantly redefine themselves through the internalization of these societal norms. Four sub-categories of gender socialization include: differences based on gender, distinction based on gender, gender discrimination, and stereotypes. Women differentiate themselves with their body. They also use their body to distinguish themselves. Furthermore, discriminations that women have encountered during their life shape their conceptions of their body. Finally, the stereotypical thoughts also affect women's body image. These stereotypes exist in all societies.
Since social and cultural factors greatly influence women's perceptions of their body, policy makers should pay attention to them. Otherwise, tendencies to negative body image, cosmetic surgery, use of cosmetics and spending more time and energy to build an ideal body will be on the rise. Policymakers need to change the structure of social norms by, for example, educating women, men and parents.
It seems low self-esteem is an individual, psychological factor. However, this is not the case because it self-esteem has its roots in cultural and social contexts. Women's confidence is built in social relationships. Pejorative epithets are one of the sub-categories of this factor. Women receive disparaging epithets that affect their self-esteem. This had an important impact on women's body image. As a result, women are forced to try to put their bodies in “the ideal form” that society requires.<strong>Introduction</strong>: The body is not a mere biological and psychosocial entity. It is a phenomenon that is socially constructed. Therefore, with today's consumer society, media and reflections of identity, people begin to reflect on their own body as something which can be constructed. The aim of this study is to understand women's perception of their body and body image.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Material & Method</strong>: the method of this study is qualitative and based on grounded theory. Data collection technique was semi-structured interviews with 18 young women in Tehran that had gone through any form of cosmetic surgery. In this study, theoretical sampling was used based on theoretical saturation, namely, the sampling process was stopped when new data didn’t emerge. A coding system was used for data analysis based on three steps: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The result of the encoding process is 167 concepts, 16 main categories and 25 sub-categories.
<strong> </strong>
<strong>Discussion</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Results</strong> <strong>&</strong> <strong>Conclusion</strong>: Women perceive their bodies as a capital, a mask, something on which they can develop an independent identity and by which they can experience enjoyment and relaxation. Although body as capital is the main perception, some women understand their body as mask. Women build their own identity and present it in their own ways to others. The enjoyment and relaxation of the body include perceptions that offset the negative views of women about their bodies. This study shows that perceptions of women are affected by values and norms of the society in which they live, including masculine norms that prevail in society. Other influencing norms include those related to gender socialization, low self-esteem, low prestige and mass media. However, masculine norms are the most important factors that influence the body image of women. Women's lower prestige than men shape their perception of body image negatively.
Women face employment barriers more often than men. Assessments of women’s quality of work is also lower in comparison with men. For example, women are evaluated lower than men in similar positions. As a result, women use their body to gain good jobs and status. Media is also one of the main factors affecting women's body image. As various studies have shown, the importance of the media in this regard is undeniable. It works in two ways: (1) direct influence on women, and (2) by shaping men's priorities. Women internalize norms of the society in the process of gender socialization based. They constantly redefine themselves through the internalization of these societal norms. Four sub-categories of gender socialization include: differences based on gender, distinction based on gender, gender discrimination, and stereotypes. Women differentiate themselves with their body. They also use their body to distinguish themselves. Furthermore, discriminations that women have encountered during their life shape their conceptions of their body. Finally, the stereotypical thoughts also affect women's body image. These stereotypes exist in all societies.
Since social and cultural factors greatly influence women's perceptions of their body, policy makers should pay attention to them. Otherwise, tendencies to negative body image, cosmetic surgery, use of cosmetics and spending more time and energy to build an ideal body will be on the rise. Policymakers need to change the structure of social norms by, for example, educating women, men and parents.
It seems low self-esteem is an individual, psychological factor. However, this is not the case because it self-esteem has its roots in cultural and social contexts. Women's confidence is built in social relationships. Pejorative epithets are one of the sub-categories of this factor. Women receive disparaging epithets that affect their self-esteem. This had an important impact on women's body image. As a result, women are forced to try to put their bodies in “the ideal form” that society requires.https://jas.ui.ac.ir/article_22262_79e15572b8829ef3c1d764079e8d77a9.pdf